ESRC Society Today

Chicle, the primary ingredient of natural chewing gum, is still produced on a small scale in the Yucatan peninsular of Mexico, but it has an illustrious history. This research, led by King's College London, seeks to understand the processes through which chicle producers' livelihoods were affected by major shifts in the world consumer market. The study also examines the viability of chicle production as a sustainable forest product today.  

Key findings

Chicle production before 1970

• 1900 to 1950 marked a period in which Mayans were largely excluded from the formal political landscape of the eastern part of the Yucatan peninsular. Through the sale of chicle, they were able to keep the state at a distance, and conserve their separate identity, despite the Mexican Government's desire to modernise the region. Chicle was sold to large companies in the United States, particularly Wrigley's.
  
• The Mexican Federal Government saw the establishment of chicle cooperatives as an important element in the area's modernisation. It was believed that the Mexican state should control the marketing of chicle, effectively making the forests part of a 'national' resource, rather than subject to traditional indigenous management. Chicle cooperatives became part of the government's national land reform. This tied them to the political fortunes of the Mexican state, and reduced their powers of political resistance. 
  
• After 1940 there was a political shift from a nationalist, left-leaning government, with a strong commitment to the co-operatives, to other administrations with much less sympathy for the chicle producers. The leaders of the cooperatives were drawn into the dominant political system. In addition periodic hurricanes, especially Hurricane Janet, devastated many of the important sources of chicle. 
  
• After 1950 chicle-based gum was largely replaced by synthetic alternatives, and most of the forest workers who tapped the resin were thrown into other activities. It wasn't until 1969 that the fortunes of the cooperatives began to improve again, and new legislation was introduced to protect wages, medical entitlements and working conditions, for the depleted workforce.   

Commercialisation of chicle since 1970

• Until 1978 State governors headed-up the various networks of chicle cooperatives and the negotiation of sales required their approval. In 1978 the democratic election of presidents of chicle co-operatives was introduced, although this did not bring an end to state intervention and corruption.
  
• All chicle was sold through IMPEXNAL, which maintained its monopoly through a law which exempted companies from paying export taxes. It was impossible for producers to influence the price they were paid. 
  
• In the early 1980s chicle extraction was identified as having an important role in conserving the forest, and at around this time a rival to IMPEXNAL was set up, called Plan Piloto Chiclero (PPC). Four years later this led to the establishment of a new representative body - the Union of Natural Chicle Producers which now deals directly with marketing of chewing gum. This has been increasingly difficult, since chicle exports are less important to the national economy.    

Sustainability of the chewing gum industry in contemporary Mexico

• Two main obstacles for the development of the market have been identified: the illegal smuggling of chicle and the bureaucratic burden. At least seven regulations and export licenses have to be in place in order for chicle shipping to take place. 
  
• The main demand for natural chewing gum is from Japan and East Asia. The Union has been working to optimise production and capture a bigger share of the market. Natural gum is superior in quality to synthetic gums but difficult for consumers to obtain. To further improve quality, the Union has introduced quality control during the re-hydration process, but the marketing of natural chewing gum is precarious since unlike some organic ‘natural’ products, it is not well known to most consumers. 
  
• Earlier this year the Union began a merger with PPC to provide a further boost to the development of marketing strategies. It remains to be seen, however, whether it will contribute to the development of a buoyant market for natural chewing gum outside Mexico.     

About the Study

Research was led by Professor Michael Redclift, Department of Geography, King's College London. Research methods included interactive workshops with locals, interviews with surviving chicle workers, contractors, cooperative representatives, producers of natural gum and the Mexican Government. A local museum acted as a project partner, helping to involve local communities in the field research, from which a film was made. Archival research was conducted in Mexico City, Merida and Chetumal. 

Key words

Chewing gum, forest ecology, global markets, sustainable development, Mexico

View all other award details